4. Factors of Muslim clustering, 5. Conclusion
4. Factors of Muslim clusteringSince September 2006, I have been living in Aston which is one of Muslim areas in Birmingham. The 2001 census showed that 70.6% of the total population in Aston was ethnic minority, made up by 20.9% Pakistani, 17.6% Black Caribbean, 16.1% Bangladeshi and so on (Birmingham City Council 2003). In the last part of this essay, I would like to deliver six possible factors effecting the current continuing clustering of Muslims, based on my observation and informal interviews with my flatmates or friends in my daily life. My flatmates are three Indians, one Pakistani and two Malaysians, who are all Muslims. Half of them are still students and other half are working here. They are not typical Islamic immigrants, because of their high educational qualifications and recent arrival. Yet, my interactions and experiences with Islamic immigrants may help me to understand the reason for Muslim clustering. Cheap housingObviously, cheaper rent is one of the most important factors to attract Muslim residents to inner city areas. For example, I only pay 100 pounds for a room and it is difficult to find such prices in other places in Birmingham. One reason for cheap housing is probably due to the age of the houses and the lack of housing facilities in these areas. But another important factor is probably the notorious reputation, due to the rumour of danger and the existence of ethnic minorities. It is South Asians that white land loads are most keen to keep out, because they fear “rapid racial residential succession and the associated threat of status decline” (Sims 1981: p.124). Alongside cheap housing, people may wish to live in near the city centre and work places to save the cost of transportation. It is not clear whether “the myth of return” still exists among South Asian immigrants, but it seems they themselves believe that saving money is their cultural preference. However, this is also fact that Pakistani and Bangladeshi were the economically most disadvantaged among all ethnic groups in 2001, in terms of unemployment rate and average earnings (Peach 2005: p.29). In addition to that, their lowest women participation in the labour market and highest birth rate might force them to spend less money on housing. Thus, it is more reasonable to think that there are no other ways for most Muslim residents, but to stay in inner city areas whether they like it or not. Household size Houses in the inner city areas are relatively large, because of their historical character. In Birmingham, most houses in the “twilight zones” were made for middle class residents in the late 19th century (Rex and Moore 1969: p.27). Even though my house has only five rooms, every room is quite large, which would accommodate a large family. In 2001, the percentages of Pakistani and Bangladeshi overcrowding in houses were 43%, while that of white was only 2 % (Anwar 2005: p.37). A main reason for overcrowding is their household size. An average household size of Bangladeshi and Pakistani was 4.5 and 4.1 in 2001, while that of White British remains at 2.3 (National Statistic Online 2004). Their high birth rate as well as joint family tendency which effect household figures could be interpreted as their cultural preference. But at the same time, we could argue that this comes from external factors such as lower education. At the very least, these large rooms in inner city areas are suitable for Muslim residents in relation to their household size. However, those overcrowded houses might be the result of their disadvantages in economic activities. Prevention from racial attacks Harassment and racially motivated attacks certainly limit the mobility of ethnic minorities, of whom not only the poor, but also the rich (Ratcliffe 1999: p.6). When ethnic minorities move to a council house which accommodates many whites, they may confront a series of racial attacks by other residents (for example, see Nayak 1993). Surprisingly, at these cases the local authority is likely to get rid of victims rather than the white racialists from there (Ratcliffe 1997: p.133). Also there are a lot of racial attacks against relatively rich ethnic minorities in private houses in white suburb areas (see Dudrah: 2002). The statistic showed that through 1990s, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis had the highest risk of being a victim of racially motivated incidents (National Statistics Online 2004). Further, after 9.11 and 7.7, as Islamophobia is wide-spreading all over the UK, Muslims surely become more likely to be targets of racial assaults. Thus, it is not strange to think that to stay in a Muslim area and prevent contact with others as much as possible could protect their lives.Religious needs It is widely believed that Muslims have greater difficulty than other religious believers to adjust to western societies (Rex 1994: p.88). A reason for this is one of the most important doctrines of Islam, which is so called “tawhid”. In principle, there is no division between their religious life and private life, because their life as a whole is seen as religious. A strict Islamic believer goes to the Mosque to pray as much as he could, especially during the month of Ramadan. Thus, the existence of the Mosque in their life sphere is important. As well, it is convenient that they can buy halal meat within distance. Such specialized shops and religious places make one of the main features of a Muslim town. Also living in a Muslim community enables them to avoid religious taboos or unfavourable things, such as pork, dogs, alcohol or sexual figures of women, even if they are staying in a western secular country. Marriage migration “Marriage migration” certainly contributes to South Asian population growth and continuing segregation (Abbas 2005: p.9). For example, in 2001, four thousands new Bangladeshi immigrants were granted to settle down in Britain and most of them seemed spouses of the second generation of British Bangladeshis (Ahmed 2005: p.195). Muslims are not only permitted to marry their close kin unlike Sikhs and Hindus, but also encouraged to do so in practice (Bellard 1990: p.229). While the inter-ethnic marriage rate of Pakistani and Bangladeshi is the lowest among ethnic minority groups, arrange marriage with their kin is still popular. Thus, although some residents emigrate from a Muslim area, the population is immediately compensated by other immigrants to the area. This tight bond with their homelands might reproduce their identities, as a Pakistani, a Bangladeshi or a Muslim. Social capital and as a new “homeland” Social capital plays an important role when finding a house to rent. It is quite common to move to a new house depending on a friend’s information which eases the risk to live in a bad house. All my flatmates found this house by means of their friends. The notable thing is that people who share a similar background easily associate together. Thus, most newcomers could be the same ethnic group as the current residents. At the same time, to enjoy social capital at most is one of the strong reasons to stay in the area. For example, many South Asian women still “rely on community networks in their search for a job” (Phillips 1998: p.1698). Among them, particularly Muslims are known as “sustaining much tighter and more inward-social looking social networks, even in diaspora, than do Sikhs or Hindus” (Ballard 1990: p.228). Experiences of living and playing (or praying) together make the ethnic minority bond stronger. Not only as the mirror of an “imaginary homeland”, but also as a new homeland, a Muslim town gives a feeling of belonging to residents. 5. ConclusionWhile there are several benefits for Muslims to live in clustering, it can lead further discrimination, economic disadvantages and lower educational achievement. Although it is difficult to conclude whether Muslim segregation is a result of discrimination or their choices, various factors force them to live in terraced houses in inner cities. Especially, their lowest socioeconomic position surely causes their worst housing condition. Thus, we need to think a Muslim housing circumstance in relation to other issues, such as education, employment and media representation.
出産・子育て
ファッション
美容・コスメ
健康・ダイエット
生活・インテリア
料理・食べ物
ドリンク・お酒
ペット
趣味・ゲーム
映画・ＴＶ
音楽
読書・コミック
旅行・海外情報
園芸
スポーツ
アウトドア・釣り
車・バイク
パソコン・家電
そのほか
すべてのジャンル
